However, it can only produce scaffolds up to 3 mm thick and it is difficult to obtain accurate pore-interconnectivity. Its advantage includes simplicity, versatility, control of pore geometry and size.
After the polymer is hardened, the salt is dissolved in a solvent. The polymer is then poured over the salt, penetrating into the empty space in-between the salt crystals. Salt leaching (porogen leaching): Salt crystals such as NaCl (common table salt) are put into a mold.Methods for fabricating porous scaffolds: Synthetic biodegradable polymers such as PLLA, PGA, PLGA, PCL, PDLLA, PEE based on PEO, and PBT are used as porous scaffolding materials. These scaffolds typically have high porosities and a homogeneous interconnected structure. Sponge or foam porous scaffolds have been widely used in tissue engineering applications. Pluripotent stem cells from brains can generate neural organoids (organ spheroids, or brain assembloids) when cultured appropriately. Human neural stem cells with familial Alzheimer's disease mutations, only when cultured in 3D, can recapitulate both amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
The differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESC) derived cardiomyocytes had much higher efficiency in 3D cultures as compared to 2D, with significant upregulation of functional heart-specific markers like MLC-2A/2V, cTnT, ANP, α-MHC and KV4.3 in 3D. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) significantly upregulate the expression of smooth muscle-specific proteins such as αSMA and myosin when cultured in 3D polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogels as compared to on a tissue culture plastic surface. Some cellular processes of differentiation and morphogenesis for tissue engineering have been shown to occur preferentially in 3D instead of 2D. Cells in vivo are in a three-dimensional environment having characteristic biophysical and biomechanical signals, which influence cell functions like migration, adhesion, proliferation, and gene expression (Figure 1).
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